Microbiology an introduction pdf free download

Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata — , in his Aryabhatiya introduced a number of trigonometric functions including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine , trigonometrictables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra.

In AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the 'founder of mathematical analysis'.

Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Nilakantha Somayaji's astronomical treatise the Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had been the most accurate astronomical model until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.

Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India 1st millennium BC with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture.

Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainlesssteels were invented in India, and were widely exported in Classic Mediterranean world. It was known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Roman Empire, was often considered to be the best. After in Middle Age it was imported in Syria to produce with special techniques the 'Damascus steel' by the year The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel Hindiah.

They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. Mathematics : From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem.

Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao.

Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around by Jia Xian. Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in BC, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century AD and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures.

Astronomy : Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots records from BC , supernovas , lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in by his predictions.

From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from was drawn using a cylindrical Mercator projection. The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BC and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BC.

In AD Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum. Seismology : To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction.

There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo — , a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats.

After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marinefossils in the Taihang Mountains hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean , Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrifiedbamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, [63] the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable typeprinting, Bi Sheng — Shen's contemporary Su Song — was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomicalclocktower in Kaifeng city in To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries 'learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors Zhang Heng in the 2nd century , the water-poweredcelestial globe Zhang Heng , matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the ironplough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what we might call 'modern science'. According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:.

It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime.

In the Middle Ages the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek the Byzantine Empire , Arabic the Islamic world , and Latin Western Europe. Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the intellectual level in the western part of Europe declined in the s. In contrast, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks, and preserved and improved the learning.

While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries.

The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine [69] and timekeeping. In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied.

John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics.

The first record of separating conjoined twins took place in the Byzantine Empire in the s when the surgeons tried to separate a dead body of a pair of conjoined twins.

The result was partly successful as the other twin managed to live for three days. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was several centuries later, in s Germany. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides.

In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham Alhazen on optics from c. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the 'first scientist' for his development of the modern scientific method. In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi c.

In astronomy, Al-Battani c. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant [88] and Fielding H. Garrison [89] considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. Ibn Sina Avicenna, c. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, [96] and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th—13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed.

By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe. An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century.

European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.

In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, [] with the result that the 'medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent. In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi c.

As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition.

Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England , [] and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercianblast furnace at Laskill. At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries.

By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, 'but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in '.

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia.

In , the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in , when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West.

Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly.

These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed. The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century Scholasticism. The Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences botany, anatomy, and medicine.

Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine.

The works of Ptolemy astronomy and Galen medicine were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution.

The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in , when the books De humani corporis fabrica On the Workings of the Human Body by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus , by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed.

The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.

The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. Directly based on the works [] of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technologyby the generation of Benjamin Franklin — , Leonhard Euler — , Mikhail Lomonosov — and Jean le Rond d'Alembert — The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy Immanuel Kant, David Hume , religion the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion , and society and politics in general Adam Smith, Voltaire.

The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics electromagnetism , mathematics non-Euclidean geometry, group theory and chemistry organic chemistry. The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after and lasted until about With the scientific revolution, paradigms established in the time of Classical antiquity were replaced with those of scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.

As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states. The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos.

This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

Galileo ' Father of Modern Physics ' also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic. In , Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica , detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.

During the late 18th and early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell known as Maxwell's equations.

The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.

Beginning in , Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in , showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist.

In Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U and U isotopes by Gaseous diffusion.

Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called 'Big Science', requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of 'basic' research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.

Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier 'father of modern chemistry' on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory.

The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in , although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships.

In , Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling.

By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources.

Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry.

The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life in the words of Francis Crick, In the same year, the Miller—Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Chinese polymath Shen Kua — first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation.

Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt. Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures.

Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in , natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, [] Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century.

These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities.

Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. We also do not have links that lead to sites DMCA copyright infringement. If You feel that this book is belong to you and you want to unpublish it, Please Contact us. Microbiology: An Introduction 13th Edition.

Download e-Book. Posted on. The download link is at the end of this article, you can directly go there and [Download] Microbiology: An Introduction Book PDF 13th Edition but it is recommended that before downloading the book you should read about it, to get the most out of the book. Just make sure you are using a browser with a Google account logged in recommended Chrome browser. Bert Funke received his Ph. He has spent his professional years as a professor of microbiology at North Dakota State University.

He taught introductory microbiology, including laboratory sections, general microbiology, food microbiology, soil microbiology,. Chris Case is a professor of microbiology at Skyline College in San Bruno, California, where she has taught for the past 46 years. She received her Ed. Each section of the text is written with the student in mind. Step-by-step diagrams that closely coordinate with narrative descriptions aid student comprehension of concepts.

For instructors who wish to use a different order, we have made each chapter as independent as possible and have included numerous cross-references.

Graphs and other disease statistics include the most current data available. These two-page spreads focus on the most challenging topics for students to master: metabolism Chapter 5 , genetics Chapter 8 , and immunology Chapter Each spread breaks down these important concepts into manageable steps and gives students a clear learning framework for the related chapters.

Each refers the student to a related Micro Flix video accessible through Mastering Microbiology. Each spread focuses on one significant public health aspect of microbiology. If you did download the book and this blog helped you then please comment down your opinion below, it means a lot for me!! Sachin Chavan M.